Genitourinary

Glomerulonephritis, also known as glomerular nephritis, abbreviated GN, is a renal disease characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, or small blood vessels in the kidneys.[1] It may present with isolated hematuria and/or proteinuria (blood resp. protein in the urine); or as a nephrotic syndrome, a nephritic syndrome, acute renal failure, or chronic renal failure. They are categorised into several different pathological patterns, which are broadly grouped into non-proliferative or proliferative types. Diagnosing the pattern of GN is important because the outcome and treatment differs in different types. Primary causes are one which are intrinsic to the kidney, whilst secondary causes are associated with certain infections (bacterial, viral or parasitic pathogens), drugs, systemic disorders (SLE, vasculitis) or cancers. Thin Basement Membrane Disease This is an autosomal dominant inherited disease characterised by thin glomerular basement membranes on electron microscopy. It is a benign condition that causes persistent microscopic haematuria. Non Proliferative This is characterised by low numbers of cells (lack of hypercellularity) in the glomeruli. They usually cause nephrotic syndrome. This includes the following types: Minimal change GN This form of GN causes 80% of nephrotic syndrome in children, but only 20% in adults. As the name indicates, there are no changes [...]

A urethral stricture is a narrowing of the urethra[1] caused by injury or disease such as urinary tract infections or other forms of urethritis. Presentation During the early stages of the condition, the subject may experience pain during urination and the inability to fully empty the bladder. It is not uncommon for the bladder’s capacity to significantly increase due to this inability to completely void. Urethral strictures may cause problems with urination, including in certain cases the complete inability to urinate, which is a medical emergency. Causes of Urethral stricture Urethral strictures are generally caused by either injury-related trauma to the tract or by a viral or bacterial infection of the tract, often caused by certain STD’s. The body’s attempt to repair the damage caused by the injury or infection creates a buildup of scar tissue in the tract resulting in a significant narrowing or even closure of the passage. Instrumentation of the urethra, particularly before the advent of flexible uro-endoscopy, was (and remains) an important causative event. Short strictures in the bulbar urethra, particularly between the proximal 1/3 and distal 2/3 of the bulb, may be congenital. They probably form as a membrane at the junction between the posterior [...]